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It also binds the mineral nutrients so they remain in the soil and are not washed away. The spaces, or pores, between the tiny particles of minerals and organic matter are occupied by either water or air. Water holds vital dissolved nutrients, while air provides the roots with oxygen. Most plants do best in a soil in which half the pore space is filled with air and half with water. Plants use nutrients obtained from soil to build the cells and tissues needed for growth. Nutrients that plants need in large amounts, called macronutrients, include oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and an array of minerals. They also need micronutrients, or trace nutrients, which consist of cobalt, chlorine, boron, iron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, manganese, and copper. Soil texture, the size of the individual soil particles, affects how fast water drains and how well plants absorb nutrients. The largest soil particles are grains of sand. Sand grains fit loosely together with large gaps between them, resembling marbles in a jar. The large pores let water (and the nutrients dissolved in it) drain out too quickly for most plants to absorb it. Clay particles, on the other hand, are very tiny, and they pack closely together, resembling tiny beads in a jar. The pores between clay particles are so small that water drains very slowly. Slow drainage can lead to oxygen deprivation because the water takes the place of air in the pores. Another disadvantage of clay is that it binds water and some nutrients so tightly that most plants cannot absorb them. A third soil particle is silt, which is larger than clay but smaller than sand. Most plants thrive in a soil type known as loam, which contains roughly 50 percent sand, 25 percent clay, and 25 percent silt. A loam soil drains water well, but not too quickly, and as a result, the plant can absorb nutrients more readily. Exceptions include desert plants, such as cacti, which do best in a sandy soil, and cottonwoods, which flourish in silty soils. Plant nutrient absorption is also dependent on a soil's pH, a measure of acidity or alkalinity. The minerals from which a soil formed and the amount of rain that passes through the soil determine its acidity or alkalinity. Pure water has a pH of 7.0, which is neutral—neither alkaline or acidic. Soils with a pH of less than 7.0 are acidic, those with a pH greater than 7.0 are alkaline. Most plants absorb nutrients best in a soil with a pH between 6.5 and 7.5; however, plants such as rhododendrons require an acidic soil, while others, such as lilacs, grow better in an alkaline soil. Acidic soils are more common in the eastern half of the United States, where rainfall is plentiful, while alkaline soils are more common in the drier west. Not all soils have enough nutrients or the right balance of nutrients. In addition, plants remove nutrients from the soil as they grow, so these nutrients must be replaced in order for the soil to remain productive. For these reasons, gardeners enhance soil by adding fertilizer, a material that contains one or more of the nutrients plants need. Gardening for pleasure did not become widespread until the development of the middle class, around AD 1500. With money and time to spare, many began to create gardens for enjoyment, not simply out of necessity, foreshadowing the present-day popularity of gardening as a recreational activity.Today gardening is practiced all over the world. With a little soil, some seeds, and a few basic tools, even inexperienced gardeners can enjoy the rewards of creating a garden and watching it grow. Gardeners with more experience and time can delve more deeply, carrying out research to select appropriate plants, and learning about the particular requirements for each type of plant. The more gardeners apply what they learn, the more their gardens thrive and grow. Plants differ in their tolerance for heat, cold, and moisture, so when selecting plants, gardeners must take into account the climate of their region. Gardeners also evaluate the soil type and how much sunlight falls on the proposed site, factors that affect the types of plants that can be grown in a particular area. They consider, too, the plant’s life cycle—how long it takes a plant to grow, flower, produce fruits or seeds, and die. Annuals such as petunias bloom and produce seed the same year they are planted, then die when cold temperatures set in. Biennials—hollyhocks, for example—live for two years, producing just leaves the first year. In the second year they produce flowers, and die when the weather turns cold. Perennials, which include shrubs and trees as well as flowers, are plants that live for three or more years. From the plants adapted to a particular climate, soil, and light, gardeners can choose plants for their characteristic appeal. Some popular traits include easy care and attractiveness to butterflies, birds, and other wildlife. In temperate zones, desirable traits may include fall color and a feature such as colorful bark, which makes the plant interesting during the winter, when leaves and flowers are absent. A gardener can experiment with a stunning diversity of interesting garden styles and types. Herb gardens may feature culinary herbs, medicinal herbs, and fragrant herbs. Flower gardens may combine a variety of flowering plants or focus on just one type, such as roses, white-flowered plants, or flowers that bloom only at night. Specialized gardens include rock or alpine gardens, which display plants native to mountains, and water gardens, which host plants adapted to wet conditions. Botanical gardens are designed to display plants for scientific and educational purposes, and in these gardens, the plants are often labeled with their names and their optimal growing conditions. Healthy soil is indispensable for a healthy garden. Plants derive water, oxygen for their roots, and essential nutrients from the soil. Soil consists of two components: minerals from weathered rocks and organic matter from decayed organisms and animal wastes. The mineral content of the soil provides plants with nutrients, such as calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. Organic matter improves drainage and helps prevent waterlogged soils, reducing the occurrence of diseases such as root rot.
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